Everything below concerns lyophilized powder. We keep the language plain, cite what the science says, and separate well-supported claims from open questions.
Last reviewed on 2026-03-22. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
Both forms act at the pituitary receptor for growth hormone-releasing hormone and increase growth hormone output, which in turn raises insulin-like growth factor 1. A long-acting analog produces sustained rather than pulsatile stimulation, and the physiological consequences of that pattern are not fully settled. Published human data on the extended form remain limited, and much of what circulates in discussion traces to early company reports rather than independent replication. How sustained exposure affects normal feedback remains an open question.
The distinguishing feature of the DAC form is a maleimide-containing group that reacts with the free thiol of cysteine-34 on human serum albumin. This reaction forms a covalent bond without enzymatic assistance, and it takes place after the peptide enters the bloodstream. Because albumin is abundant and long-lived, the attached peptide is carried through circulation far longer than an unmodified fragment would survive. The chemistry is a deliberate pharmacokinetic strategy rather than a change to receptor activity.
Enzymatic protection is a separate mechanism from plasma protein binding. The four substitutions in the backbone reduce recognition by dipeptidyl peptidase IV, which normally cleaves the natural hormone within minutes. Without the reactive group, this resistance still yields only a short window of activity, generally reported in the range of tens of minutes. With it, reported half-lives in early human work extended to several days. The size of that gap is the main practical distinction between the two materials.
The peptide backbone includes a D-alanine at position two, which resists cleavage by dipeptidyl peptidase IV, and several other substitutions that reduce degradation. Its molecular weight is roughly 3.4 kDa without the linker and about 3.6 kDa with it. The molecule is water soluble and is normally supplied as a lyophilized powder. Precise sequence and mass values depend on which variant is described, so technical documents usually state the exact form being referenced.
CJC-1295 is a synthetic peptide designed as a long-acting analogue of growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH). Its structure derives from the first 29 amino acids of native GHRH, a fragment often called GRF(1-29). Four substitutions were introduced to slow enzymatic breakdown and extend activity relative to the natural sequence. The compound was developed by ConjuChem as part of a broader effort to improve the pharmacokinetic profile of peptide hormones. It is studied in laboratory and clinical research settings rather than appearing as a naturally occurring substance.
Two related forms circulate in technical discussion under the same family name. The original version carries a drug affinity complex (DAC) that binds covalently to serum albumin after administration, and this linkage substantially extends circulation time. A second form, frequently written as modified GRF(1-29) or CJC-1295 without DAC, lacks that linker and clears much faster. The naming is a frequent source of confusion because the shorthand CJC-1295 can refer to either form depending on the source. Reports sometimes fail to specify which variant was studied.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Duration with linker | Several days | Reported in early human work |
| Duration without linker | Tens of minutes | Short plasma residence |
| Albumin attachment site | Cysteine-34 | Covalent maleimide reaction |
| Primary receptor | Pituitary GHRH receptor | Stimulates growth hormone release |
| Downstream marker | Insulin-like growth factor 1 | Indirect measure of activity |
== Nomenclature == In 1997, Jamie I. Fletcher and his research associates introduced new nomenclature for classifying Australian funnel web spider toxins. They suggested replacing the trivial name 'versutoxin' with delta-hexatoxin-Hv1 instead. The delta represents the main biological activity of the neurotoxin; inhibiting sodium channels. In more recent research, atracotoxins have been rebranded as hexatoxins, but the two are still used interchangeably along with the abbreviations HXTX and ACTX. Delta and Hv1 are still used to specify the neurotoxic peptide versutoxin.
Up to the mid-20th century, the mortality rate was around 60–70%, but this has been greatly reduced with advances in medical care. A review of death cap poisoning throughout Europe from 1971 to 1980 found the overall mortality rate to be 22.4% (51.3% in children under ten and 16.5% in those older than ten). This was revised to around 10–15% in surveys reviewed in 1995.
===== Topical ===== Alternatively dsRNA can be supplied without genetic engineering. One approach is to add them to irrigation water. The molecules are absorbed into the plants' vascular system and poison insects feeding on them. Another approach involves spraying dsRNA like a conventional pesticide. This would allow faster adaptation to resistance. Such approaches would require low cost sources of dsRNAs that do not currently exist.
=== Stimulus-secretion coupling === In response to, for instance, a rise in the plasma sodium concentration, vasopressin neurons also discharge action potentials in bursts, but these bursts are much longer and are less intense than the bursts displayed by oxytocin neurons, and the bursts in vasopressin cells are not synchronised. It seemed strange that the vasopressin cells should fire in bursts. As the activity of the vasopressin cells is not synchronised, the overall level of vasopressin secretion into the blood is continuous, not pulsatile. Richard Dyball and his co-workers speculated that this pattern of activity, called "phasic firing", might be particularly effective for causing vasopressin secretion. They showed this to be the case by studying vasopressin secretion from the isolated posterior pituitary gland in vitro. They found that vasopressin secretion could be evoked by electrical stimulus pulses applied to the gland, and that much more hormone was released by a phasic pattern of stimulation than by a continuous pattern of stimulation. These experiments led to interest in "stimulus-secretion coupling" - the relationship between electrical activity and secretion. Supraoptic neurons are unusual because of the large amounts of peptide that they secrete, and because they secrete the peptides into the blood. However, many neurons in the brain, and especially in the hypothalamus, synthesize peptides. It is now thought that bursts of electrical activity might be generally important for releasing large amounts of peptide from peptide-secreting neurons.
==== Scouts South Africa ==== Scouts South Africa uses the WOSM emblem badge when new members join as a Cub, a Scout or an Adult Leader. The badge is worn on the left front pocket of the uniform, over the heart.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Other means of fortifying foods via genetic engineering have been explored. Research on rice began in 1982. The first field trials of golden rice cultivars were conducted in 2004. The result was "Golden Rice", a variety of Oryza sativa rice produced through genetic engineering to biosynthesize β-carotene, a precursor of retinol, in the edible parts of rice. In May 2018, regulatory agencies in the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand had concluded that Golden Rice met food safety standards. In July 2021, the Philippines became the first country to officially issue the biosafety permit for commercially propagating Golden Rice. However, in April 2023, the Supreme Court of the Philippines issued a Writ of Kalikasan ordering the Department of Agriculture to stop the commercial distribution of genetically modified rice in the country.
Britain was irritated by several French actions following the Treaty of Amiens. Bonaparte annexed Piedmont and Elba, made himself President of the Italian Republic, a state in northern Italy that France had set up, and failed to evacuate Holland, as it had agreed to do in the treaty. France then continued to interfere with British trade despite peace having been made and complained about Britain harbouring certain individuals and not cracking down on the anti-French press. Malta was captured by Britain during the war and was subject to a complex arrangement in the 10th article of the Treaty of Amiens, where it was to be restored to the Knights of St. John with a Neapolitan garrison and placed under the guarantee of third powers. The weakening of the Knights of St. John by the confiscation of their assets in France and Spain along with delays in obtaining guarantees prevented the British from evacuating it after three months as stipulated in the treaty.
== Function == The protein encoded by this gene is an adaptor protein which contains five LIM domains, or double zinc fingers. The protein is likely involved in integrin signaling through its LIM domain-mediated interaction with integrin-linked kinase, found in focal adhesion plaques. It is also thought to act as a bridge linking integrin-linked kinase to NCK adaptor protein 2, which is involved in growth factor receptor kinase signaling pathways. Its localization to the periphery of spreading cells also suggests that this protein may play a role in integrin-mediated cell adhesion or spreading.
== Structure == ACTH receptors are the shortest of the melanocortin receptor family and are the smallest known G-coupled receptors. Both human and bovine ACTH receptors are synthesized as 297 residue long proteins with 81% sequence homology. There are currently no available protein X-ray crystallography structures for the ACTH receptor available in the Protein Data Bank; while the ACTH receptor and the β2 adrenergic receptor are relatively distantly-related with a sequence identity of approximately 26%, MC2R investigators such as David Fridmanis have assumed that the folded surfaces of both receptors that are responsible for binding Gαs should be very similar and use conserved motifs. The full length sequence of MC2R includes seven hydrophobic domains that are predicted as transmembrane segments. In the third intracellular loop of the receptor a protein kinase A and protein kinase c phosphorylation motifs have been detected. ACTH receptors also require the binding of melanocortin-2 receptor accessory protein-1 (MRAP1) without which ACTH receptors cannot bind ACTH. Without MRAP, the receptor is degraded in the endoplasmic reticulum, but with MRAP, the receptor is glycosylated and expressed on the cell plasma membrane.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
A maleimide moiety reacts with the thiol of cysteine-34, forming a covalent bond. The reaction occurs in circulation without enzymatic catalysis.
The group is intended to alter distribution and persistence, not receptor engagement. The peptide portion still binds the pituitary receptor, so the primary difference is duration rather than potency.
Not firmly. Early reports describe several days for the extended form, but independent confirmations are sparse, and values vary with assay method and study design.
No. It is a synthetic analogue modeled on the first 29 residues of human GHRH. The substitutions and any linker are laboratory modifications rather than features of the endogenous peptide.